Eastern Partnership Countries Research Articles

Reconfiguring dynamics of bordering/debordering in EU-Eastern neighbours’ relations: The EU as locus of resistance

EU relations with its eastern neighbours have been pursued with the goal of building a ‘ring of friends’ contributing towards security and stability-building, through reforms’ implementation and the development of closer relations. This transformative agenda met, however, some criticism and resistance from Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries. Russia’s full-scale invasion on 24 February 2022 changed profoundly the setting for these relations, including the accession requests coming from Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia, along with the cut off of relations with Russia and Belarus. The implied debordering and rebordering dynamics taking place show the complexity of material and symbolic bordering practices. Through a critical border studies approach, this paper seeks to unpack these bordering dynamics and how they are reconfiguring the European space, arguing the EU has become locus of resistance for countries such as Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia assuring their European identity.

The war in Ukraine, the EU’s geopolitical awakening and implications for the “contested neighbourhood”

ABSTRACT This article looks at how the Russian invasion has reshaped the EU's Eastern neighbourhood policy and subsequently how has the new policy affected the strategies of the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries. We systematically review policy responses to the war of the EU and the countries of the EU-Russia contested neighbourhood and identify new patterns in foreign policy behavior of these states and key domestic policy changes. We specifically highlight the shift in two key attributes of the EU's foreign policy, which has traditionally defined its neighbourhood policy: its relations with Russia and the inclusiveness of the EaP countries in the European project. We make two arguments: first, the crisis and new risks in the region has created a demand and opened a geopolitical dimension to the EU neighbourhood policy, which required Brussels to fill a hard security vacuum in its own policies in the neighbourhood, which invoked an application of new instruments to deter Moscow and support EU's Eastern allies. Second, the crisis contributes to even faster erosion of the post-Soviet space and a new regional fragmentation along geopolitical lines. Finally, the question of sustainability of these changes and their effect on the EU as an actor remains open.

ENERGY REGIONALISM IN WIDER EUROPE: SUB-REGIONAL ENERGY DYNAMICS AND THE EU’S EASTERN PARTNERSHIP

This article investigates energy regionalism in wider Europe, examining extra-regional and intra-regional challenges. In recent years, the European Union (EU) has taken concrete steps to enhance its energy security and reduce its dependence on Russia. Russia's invasion of Ukraine has further highlighted the critical dimension of the energy crisis between Russia and the EU. This study emphasizes the vital role of sub-regional energy dynamics in regional policy formulation and criticizes the EU's regional approach. In this realm, the article assesses the EU's Eastern Partnership through the Caucasus Eastern Partnership countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia) and the Northeast Europe Eastern Partnership countries (Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus). Thus, countries' recent initiatives will be investigated to demonstrate how they cope with issues of energy security. In the end, the article underlines the necessity for the adoption of tailor-made sub-regional energy policies by the EU. For Northeast Europe Eastern Partnership countries, the EU needs to support energy market liberalization and stability, invest in critical infrastructural developments, foster effective dispute resolution mechanisms, and maintain transparent transit conditions. For Caucasus Eastern Partnership countries, the EU needs to facilitate multilateral energy cooperation and dialogue, promote energy market liberalization, and facilitate energy interconnection. In short, strong political leadership and continuous efforts to foster collaboration and interconnectivity in wider Europe are necessary to enhance energy security.

STATE SUPPORT FOR THE ECONOMIC COOPERATION DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN UKRAINE, THE EASTERN PARTNERSHIP COUNTRIES AND THE EU

This comprehensive analysis discusses the reform of Ukraine's state administration, emphasizing the need to integrate global public management theories and practices, and the experiences of Eastern Partnership countries. It highlights the shift from state-centric to human-centric governance, focusing on efficiency, effectiveness, and citizen-oriented services. The document examines the challenges in implementing EU integration mechanisms like Twinning, TAIEX, and SIGMA in Ukraine. It underscores the importance of a unified coordination center for effective implementation and the need to align Ukrainian policies and practices with EU standards, highlighting the necessity for Ukraine to develop its own national concepts of management and public administration, integrating both national and international experiences. Keywords: economic cooperation, EU, Eastern Partnership, development, state support.

MEASURING THE FDI ATTRACTIVENESS IN THE EAP COUNTRIES FROM AN INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Countries in the European Union’s neighborhood, such as those in the Eastern Partnership (EaP), have a particular interest in attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) because investment inflows can guarantee them a number of advantages needed for accession. This paper proposes a comparative analysis of the investment attractiveness of the EaP countries in the period 2005–2019 considering the institutional theory of FDI inflows. The research methodology considers a quantitative approach that uses the composite index as a tool. The results show that half of the EaP countries have a high level of investment attractiveness, while the institutional quality has an important influence on attracting FDI.

The emergence of geo-economic institutions: observations on European and Chinese development cooperation in Ukraine, Georgia, and Moldova 2014 – 2020

The emergence of China as a major provider of development finance has garnered considerable scholarly debate. Chinese investments and their impact on recipient states have been extensively studied, mainly focusing on the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). In response to the BRI, the European Commission recently announced its connectivity strategy, the Global Gateway initiative. In this context, and even before the announcement, little work has been done to map Chinese state capitalist development finance side by side with the European Union’s (EU) market-led, public-private partnership-oriented strategies, especially within Europe’s own neighborhood. Additionally, the literature insufficiently explains why development institutions (agents) would act geo-economically to enforce their most powerful member states’ (principals) international agendas. This lack of theoretical explanatory power poses a serious puzzle. Thus, we ask, how has EU and Chinese institutional investment cooperation developed (legally and financially) in the EU’s Eastern Partnership (EaP) region in the previous EU Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF) from 2014 to 2020? We argue that development institutions have acted in accordance with their principal’s policy goals by facilitating investment and institutional agreements and by offering beneficial cooperation conditions, so that the EU and China can direct investment in a geo-economic manner if they choose to do so. In the following, we find that European investment in the EaP countries Ukraine, Moldova, and Georgia, has been huge in absolute terms (amount invested) and strong in relative terms––through deeper economic cooperation––when compared to Chinese investment activity in the same countries. This development supports the EU’s aim of countering China’s increasing economic presence in the region. However, we find that this gap has been closing in total terms. Our study suggests that while China has not matched EU investment in the EaP region for the previous MFF, further research is needed to unpack individual sectors and their geo-economic implications for official development institutions and their respective states.

Europeanization and reformation of higher education sector in the Eastern Partnership countries through Bologna process in pursuit of the European integration

This article examines the critical role of higher education reforms in the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries since their independence as they endeavor to align their systems with European standards and norms, ultimately seeking closer integration with the European Union (EU). The EaP countries, comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine, have embarked on ambitious journeys of transformation in their higher education sectors to foster economic development, enhance academic excellence, and strengthen regional cooperation. The article employs a comprehensive approach, encompassing both policy analysis and empirical insights to shed light on the multifaceted nature of higher education reforms across the region. It delves into the various challenges and opportunities faced by the EaP countries in their pursuit of European integration through higher education reforms. The key themes explored include the alignment of the national higher education reforms with the Bologna Declaration guidelines including the promotion of internationalization and quality assurance mechanisms emphasizing the importance of cross-border collaboration and knowledge exchange. It critically assesses the progress made so far, highlighting successes and identifying persistent obstacles. Moreover, it examines the role of international organizations and the EU programs in supporting these reforms. The analysis highlights the importance of higher education reforms in the EaP region not only as an instrument for achieving European integration but also as a catalyst for broader societal and economic transformations. The research data collected refer to the period of 1991-2020.

A three-country survey of stakeholders on Continuous Professional Development in Public Health

Abstract Background Health and social care systems in Eastern Partnership Countries are in the process of “digital transformation”, and health professionals started widespread use of digital registers and databases. This challenge highlights the importance of upskilling workforces. However, in some of these countries there are not well functioning Continuous Professional Development (CPD) systems available and less attention is paid to widening access to life-long learning (LLL) education at High Educational Institutions (HEIs). Study aimed to explore the view of stakeholders on the needs and perspectives of CPD in the Public Health on the example of Georgia, Armenia and Moldova. Methods Quantitative research method was used. A special questionnaire was designed for the study. Survey was administered in November-December 2022 in Georgia, Armenia and Moldova. Results In total, 122 stakeholders from various areas (Ministry of Health, PH institutions, hospitals, HEIs) participated in the survey with 58,7% being at a high management level and with 82.5% having more than 15 years of total working experience. The majority of respondents (94,6%) worked in the state sector. Study reveals several common needs and perspectives in all three countries. Majority of stakeholders (97,8%) suggested that there is a lack of qualified staff with the necessary competencies and skills. In addition, large share of stakeholders (95,7%) mentioned that there is a lack of training opportunities and relevant CPD Programs in e-health and digitalization, medical and social registries, electronic surveillance systems, as well lack of financial support (93,4%), absence of appropriate regulation (90,2%). Conclusions Stakeholders in Georgia, Armenia and Moldova considered that existing gaps can be filled through strengthening the national system of CPD and developing of high quality CPD Programs oriented on specific knowledge and skills in the Public Health. Key messages • It is important in Eastern Partnership Countries to develop CPD programs with a focus on digital skills according to the best European practice and experience. • High Educational Institutions can play a significant role in delivering LLL for the health workforce in Public Health.

Issues of national minorities in the policy of the Eastern Partnership

The peculiarities of implementing the policy of the EU’s Eastern Partnership Initiative in regards to protecting the rights of national minorities have been studied. The issue of national minorities in the EU is considered from the perspectives of security, democracy, and regional integration. Despite contemporary criticism of the EU’s Eastern Partnership Initiative, many initiatives aimed at protecting the rights of national minorities in the region have been implemented, thereby fostering intergovernmental cooperation. It is evident that Ukraine and Moldova are the most proactive in protecting the rights of national minorities amongst the Eastern Partnership countries. These countries have been granted the status of candidate for EU accession. Despite the Russian-Ukrainian war, Ukraine actively works on improving legislation in the field of ethno-policy. Particular emphasis is placed on analysis of the institutional structure of national minorities, communication pathways, and non-discriminatory policies in Eastern Partnership countries. Member states of the Eastern Partnership actively utilize “soft power” techniques through a network of minority organizations. It has been suggested that European integration of Ukraine and Moldova has generated considerable opportunities for the development of national minorities. Loosening of state borders has enabled national minorities to connect more deeply with their ethnic homelands, thereby transforming them into engaged participants of transborder cooperation and significant figures of regional policy. The Eastern Partnership furnishes a platform for minorities to assert themselves in decisions which pertain to their lives, execute grant initiatives, and take part in regional associations of minorities. Nevertheless, certain risks are highlighted, such as particular nations exploiting EU enlargement to tackle minority matters or manipulate minority rights. The EU has analyzed programs supporting national minorities, especially those implemented in the Eastern Partnership countries. While Eastern Partnership countries have developed their policies regarding national minorities, there are common problems faced by minorities in the region. Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Azerbaijan, and Armenia are involved in conflicts, being former Soviet Union countries, and face numerous challenges concerning the functioning of the Russian minority, which is numerically significant in this region. It is stated that the EU cooperates with the Eastern Partnership countries on matters regarding national minorities, and it is crucial to develop innovative models for managing ethnic diversity, promoting the involvement of national minorities in making socio-political decisions and integrating them into society.

ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM COMPETITIVENESS INDEX IN EASTERN PARTNERSHIP COUNTRIES

Over the last decade until the Covid-19 pandemic, the international tourism market has seen significant growth every year, involving more and more states and regions in the tourism and travel industry. In a number of countries, tourism has become the main sphere of employment for citizens and the most important sector of the economy. Tourism thus became the source of economic, social and economic innovations and transformations. However, the pace of tourism development in each country is different and depends on a number of factors and conditions. There is no homogeneity in tourism development worldwide. The differences are generated by distinctive features and the ability to capitalise on the opportunities these distinct features offer. At the same time, the level of success of a country or region on the international market for tourism services depends directly on its competitiveness. The article focuses on the analysis of the competitiveness of tourism in the Eastern Partnership countries using the index of competitiveness in tourism and travel published in the World Economic Forum report. The analysis is performed by comparing data from 2017 and 2019 using the Promethee model. Through the research, we performed comparative analysis of the tourism situation in Ukraine, Republic of Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan. The international report lacks data on Belarus. The results showed that most Eastern Partnership countries do not have a high level of competitiveness in tourism and travel. A positive effect is the upward trend of Georgia and Ukraine’s performance in the research area. At the same time, although Ukraine, Armenia and the Republic of Moldova increased in the global competitiveness ranking, this growth was not high enough to reach Georgia’s level.

The impact of digitalization in the education field for Eastern Partnership Countries

The impact of digitalization in the education field for Eastern Partnership Countries

The Enlargement Policy of the European Union – Its Present and Future in the Context of the War in Ukraine 2022

The aim of the current research paper is to examine the present and future of the enlargement policy of the European Union in the context of the complex realities of the war in Ukraine and the new EU initiatives and conceptual ideas related to the Enlargement Strategy from 2018, the new negotiation methodology from 2020, the concepts of gradual accession to the Union with a transitional consolidation clause, the European Political Community and a new European Convention. For the purpose of the study, different methods of analysis have been used. Some of them include: an innovative 'portfolio thinking' approach, revealing the extent of the EU's innovative spirit in creating new trajectories of engagement with the Western Balkans and Eastern Partnership countries, and emphasising the importance of de-risking so that the above presented initiatives are recognised as an opportunity rather than an obstacle to the European perspective; experimental use of artificial intelligence by the OpenAI research laboratory in developing potential scenarios for the future of enlargement policy in the short, medium and long term. The study has its added value in view of the upcoming European elections in 2024, the growing geopolitical aspirations of Russia and China in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, the need to prepare both the EU and candidate countries for future enlargements and for the challenges of tomorrow.

The european green deal: shaping the future of the eastern partnership

The article has focused on the European Green Deal [EGD], its goals, key tasks and components. Particular attention has been paid to the specifics of the implementation of the EGD in the partner countries of the Eastern Partnership [EaP]. The author’s approach to singling out clusters of the EaP countries on the integration of their green policies, taking into account the level of convergence of the EaP countries environmental and climate policies and the peculiarities of the implementation of the EGD, has been presented. The potential of the countries of the region in terms of readiness to switch to green energy has been identified on the basis of the Energy Transition Index and the dynamics of the EaP Environmental and Climate Policy Sub-Index. The degree of correlation between the general degree of convergence of the EaP countries to the European Union and the degree of convergence of the EaP countries environmental and climate policies to the EGD has been determined. The ways of transformation of the strategy of formation and implementation of the EGD for the Eastern Partnership countries, taking into account the current challenges, have been outlined. Thorough conclusions and recommendations for the EaP countries in the context of EGD implementation have been presented.

Candidate Countries’ Engagement with European Union Agencies – Alternative Modes of EU Integration?

ABSTRACT Decentralized EU agencies have played an important role in the Union’s institutional landscape over the last three decades. Various engagement logics and types of cooperation have previously been investigated for the European Economic Area and EU Eastern Partnership countries, but not for the five countries that received EU candidate status by 2021—Turkey and four Western Balkans countries—Montenegro, Serbia, Albania, and Northern Macedonia. Covering the period between 1999 and 2021 analysis found that 23 out of 34 agencies observed had some type of engagement with these candidates, while serving both EU’s broader foreign policy interests and advancing the sector-specific alignment of candidates. This also suggests that it is possible to frame these engagements as a form of external EU differentiation.

Sustainable Development: A Common Denominator for the EU’s Policy Towards the Eastern Partnership?

ABSTRACT The heterogeneity of the Eastern Partnership countries’ cultures, political regimes and foreign policy aspirations has been a challenge to the EU’s formulation of a coherent umbrella policy towards the region since the 2004 enlargement. Document analysis with a focus on region-level documents and the cases of Ukraine and Azerbaijan demonstrates the EU’s tendency to shift from an emphasis on European integration and common values to the sustainable development concept in order to address this challenge. By also taking into account the context of this tendency, this analysis highlights the need to balance sustainable development, integration efforts and democratisation in the Eastern Partnership amidst increasing differentiation between target countries and geopolitical pressures.

Europeanization Through Education: Promoting European Studies In Eastern Partnership Countries

Our aim is to problematize Europeanization through education in EaP countries by studying the promotion of EU studies in higher education. The paper discusses the educational dimension of Europeanization in EaP countries from three interrelated perspectives - social constructivism,  the Foucauldian concept of  governmentality and a post-structuralist reading of centrality and marginality. We specifically focus on a series of international projects developed by the University of Tartu (Estonia) in partnership with other EU-based and non-EU universities from the EaP. We used qualitative data from reports of 4 EU-funded cooperation projects and also student’s views obtained in 2 focus groups that explored how the EU is taught and discussed. In the end, the added value of the article is that it offers a critical view on teaching about the EU in the Eastern neighborhood, focusing on local perspectives on EU-funded projects in higher education.

Does culture influence online customer engagement of university stakeholders: pandemic perspective

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly increased the role of social media in the communication policy of educational institutions. Ensuring the effective use of social networks to communicate with target audiences requires universities to understand, among other things, the importance of cultural context for the audience’s engagement.We analyzed the engagement rates (ER) in Facebook and Instagram for the most influential universities in the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries to determine the influence of the country’s cultural characteristics.The study examines two hypotheses. H1: Stakeholders in collectivist cultures with a high level of power distance are more likely to increase online engagement when limited in offline communication. H2: High uncertainty avoidance countries with long-term orientation will demonstrate broader social media engagement.The results showed that the dynamics of stakeholder activity in the social networks Facebook and Instagram for the most influential universities in the Eastern Partnership countries do not depend on the country’s cultural profile.Thus, we can conclude that universities can expand their presence in the digital communication space while addressing representatives of their target audiences from different countries without differentiating their communication messages. The study results also indicate the prospects for expanding remote students’ mobility programs as they will not require different approaches to effective digital communication.
 JEL classіfіcatіon: M30, M39, I20, I29

Peculiarities and Prospects of the European Union Involvement in the Settlement of Conflicts on the Territory of the Eastern Partnership Countries1

Abstract A new EU global strategy is being formed, as opposed to the European Security Strategy, which no longer corresponds to the geopolitical environment. In accordance with the evolution of security threats at the basis of the Global Strategy, the trends of ensuring unity within the EU and its global leadership, as well as strengthening the EU’s defence capabilities and changing its security approaches are now becoming of vital importance. It is the security structural transformations that currently pose the task of geopolitical repositioning to international actors in the global security system. In the conditions of such restructuring, the role of the EU in resolving international conflicts is given a special place. It is obvious that its classic approaches to conflict resolution have lost their perspective.

ადამიანკაპიტალის გაზომვის კონცეპტუალური ასპექტები

The hyper-competitive global economy of the twenty-first century has become an era of innovation, technology, productivity, new knowledge and skills and focused on sustainable and inclusive growth. Human capital is one of the fundamental factors for ensuring sustainable and inclusive growth. The process of human capital formation is long and is influenced by many factors. Its measurement is one of the actual issues. The article discusses the analysis of both theoretical concepts of human capital measurement, as well as measurement problems. We consider three approaches for human capital measurement: The Cost-Based Approach - measures human capital by looking at the stream of past investments undertaken by individuals, households, employers and governments. The Income-Based Approach - measures human capital by looking at the stream of future earnings that human capital investment generates over the lifetime of a person. The approach elaborated by Jacob Mincer is empirically implemented by explaining the logarithm of the wage of a worker from her/his educational attainment and labour market experience (which is another source of human capital formation), while controlling for a set of background characteristics such as gender, type of labour contract (e.g. full-time or part-time, fixed term or tenure). The Indicators-based Approach - recently are widely used for measurement of human capital. 1. The UN Human Development Index (HDI), which combines measures of average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development, i.e. health, education and knowledge, and standards of living. The Human Development Index (HDI) provides a single index measure which aims to capture three key dimensions of human development: an access to knowledge, long and healthy life and a sufficient standard of living; 2. World Bank Human Capital Index (HCI); 3. The PISA, which tests 15-16 year olds students for their cognitive skills in terms of reading, mathematics, science and problem solving; 4. The PIAAC, which tests adults for their competencies in terms of literacy, numeracy and ability to solve problems in technology-rich environments. The PISA and the PIAAC are new measures and express cognitive skills and abilities of students. A new approaches of human capital measurement clarifies what indicators can be considered to precisely measure more accurate human capital. The paper presents an empirical analysis of the dynamics of human capital of the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries and draws relevant conclusions. For this purposes we consider several measurements of human capital: Human Capital Index (http://databank.worldbank.org/data); Human Development Index (http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdi), Public Expenditure on education (http://databank.worldbank.org/data) and (http://data.uis.unesco.org). Based on the analysis of the values ​​of the indicators and characteristics discussed above the following can be clearly identified: The higher government spending on education, the higher value of PISA (conclusion are similar regarding HCI and HDI). Georgia's favorable positions allows us to draw certain conclusions: the country requires active support from the government to improve problematic situation in terms of both healthcare and education. It is necessary to have an effective educational system that contributes to raising the level of education in the country (especially at the general education level), attracting qualified personnel to schools, supporting science, introducing scientific and technological achievements, analyzing and evaluating global technological trends. The high level of education of the population is a prerequisite for the development of demand for high-tech products and stimulates the creation of innovative products and processes. The current picture shows the impact of the pandemic on human capital through increasing mortality (which is related to the spread of infection), increasing government spending (related to manage the spread of the virus); It is clear that there is a transmission of the pandemic on the economic equilibrium (through the impact on demand and supply). At the same time, however there is the effect that we can consider as a positive result - acceleration of digitization. Since the process of formation and accumulation of human capital is not short-term, quantitative assessment of the impact will be possible after a certain period of time (the time lag should be taken into account); Keywords: Human Capital; Human Capital Index; Human Development Index; Government Expenditure on Education; PISA. JEL Codes: E24, J24, J41

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MECHANISMS FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN ECONOMIC COOPERATION OF EASTERN PARTNERSHIP COUNTRIES

The article presents the criteria for the effectiveness of the implementation of state management mechanisms in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries. It has been proven that every certain period for the implementation of state administration in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries becomes a rather relevant and necessary mechanism, in accordance with the criteria of effectiveness, namely: relevance - the criterion for assessing the need for mechanisms is the perspective of the implementation of the tasks in the direction of formation and implementation public administration in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries; cost-effectiveness - an indicator of the effectiveness of the mechanisms - when the planned result significantly exceeds the costs for their implementation in the process of public administration in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries; minimization of various types of costs (relevant material, human, monetary and other); effectiveness - the indicator for evaluating the effectiveness of the relevant mechanisms is the determined ratio of the number of used resources (relevant material, evolutionary, human, resource, and others) with the result obtained in the process of formation and implementation of public administration in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries. Keywords: European Union, European integration, Eastern Partnership, public administration, performance Criteria.